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1. Trade and Economic Policy1

A. A Few Numbers on Trade and Economic Growth1

B. The Debate on Liberalized Trade7

Walter Kirn， Help Wanted7

C. Comparative Advantage10

1. The Parable of the Lawyer-Secretary11

2. The Parable of the Entrepreneur-Merchant11

3. An Example of Comparative Advantage13

D. Traditional Arguments Against Trade19

1. Domestic Market Failures19

Paul Krugman & Maurice Obstfeld， The Domestic Market Failure Argument Against Free Trade19

2. Distribution22

3. Infant Industry23

4. Optimal Tariffs25

5. Strategic Trade Policy25

6. National Security26

E. Non-Economic Reasons Supporting Liberalized Trade28

2. The Trade Debate Among Economists31

Jagdish Bhagwati， Technology， Not Globalisation， Is Driving Wages Down31

A. Outsourcing33

Alan S. Blinder， Free Trade’s Great， But Offshoring Rattles Me34

Charles Schumer & Paul Craig Roberts， Second Thoughts on Free Trade37

Arvind Panagariya， Defending the Case for Free Trade （On Outsourcing）38

B. A Debate Rages42

David Dollar & Aart Kraay， Spreading the Wealth43

Dani Rodrik， How to Save Globalization from Its Cheerleaders46

3. The Making and Impact of Trade Agreements in National Legal Systems51

A. Trade Policymaking in the United States52

Charan Devereaux， Robert Lawrence & Michael Watkins， Case Studies in U.S. Trade Negotiation， Vol. 1： Making the Rules53

United States Trade Representative， Report to the Congress on the Extension of Trade Promotion Authority55

Pamphlet Against Fast Track， Public Citizen’s Global Trade Watch56

B. Trade Policymaking in the European Union58

Stephen Woolcock， Trade Policy： From Uruguay to Doha and Beyond59

Sophie Meunier， Trade Policy and Political Legitimacy in the European Union63

Sophie Meunier， What Single Voice？ European Institutions and EU-U.S. Trade Negotiations65

C. The Status of WTO Agreements in U.S. and EC Law67

John James Barcelo， The Status of WTO Rules in U.S. Law67

Marco Bronckers， The Effect of the WTO in European Court Litigation70

Piet Eeckhout， External Relations of the European Union， Legal and Constitutional Foundations73

4. The WTO： History and Structure79

A. What Does the WTO Do？80

World Trade Organization， Understanding the WTO， Chapter 1： Basics80

B. A Very Brief History of the GATT/WTO System82

William Davey， The World Trade Organization： A Brief Introduction82

C. Why Does the WTO Exist？85

Douglas Irwin， Petros Mavroidis & Alan Sykes， The Genesis of the GATT85

D. The Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization88

WTO Agreement， Article Ⅲ， Functions of the WTO88

World Trade Organization， Understanding the WTO， Chapter 7： The Organization89

E. Secretariat and Staff93

F. Membership94

G. Navigating the WTO Agreements95

Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization95

World Trade Organization， Understanding the WTO， Chapter 2： The Agreements97

H. What Does the WTO Do， and What Does It Not Do？99

World Trade Organization， Ten Common Misunderstandings About the WTO100

I. Is the WTO a Legitimate and Accountable Institution？107

Susan George， Beyond the WTO： The Problem Isn’t Beef， Bananas， Cultural Diversity， or the Patenting of Life； The Problem Is the WTO107

Ruth Grant & Robert Keohane， Accountability and Abuses of Power in World Politics109

5. WTO Dispute Settlement115

A. Understanding the WTO Dispute Settlement System116

William Davey， The WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism116

B. Flowchart of the DSU Process and Timelines132

C. Problem： Antigua Gambling134

6. Special Topics in WTO Dispute Settlement137

A. Retaliation and the Level of Trade Suspension137

EC—Hormone Beef138

B. Unilateral vs. Multilateral Enforcement of GATT/WTO Agreements146

C. Confidential Proceedings vs. Transparency and Open Hearings151

1. Private Representation Before the WTO152

2. Amicus Curiae Briefs153

3. Public Hearings159

D. Problem： Patria and Protectio164

7. Tariffs165

A. Background to Tariff Negotiations and Commitments166

1. Tariffs， Tariff Negotiations， and Tariff Bindings166

2. Special Cases： Agriculture and Information Technology Products170

3. Tariff Renegotiations171

Anwarul Hoda， Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations Under the GATT and the WTO， Procedures and Practices171

B. The Jurisprudence on Import Tariffs176

1. Argentina—Textiles176

Argentina—Textiles （Appellate Body Report）178

Argentina—Textiles （Panel Report）180

2. EC—Customs Classification of Chicken Cuts182

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties， Article 31： General Rules of Interpretation184

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties， Article 32： Supplementary Means of Interpretation184

EC—Customs Classifiication of Chicken Cuts185

C. The International Trade Negotiation Game195

D. Problem： Tramontanan Chocolate Duties197

8. Quantitative Restrictions199

A. What Is a Non-Tariff Barrier？201

B. Background to the General Ban on Quantitative Restrictions203

Arthur Dunkel & Frieder Roessler， The Ranking of Trade Policy Instruments Under the GATT Legal System204

C. Japan—Semi-Conductors209

Japan —Semi-Conductors210

D. Other Developments215

1. The Line Between Government and Private Conduct215

Argentina—Bovine Hides216

2. What Are “Restrictions on Importation”？218

India—Autos219

E. Problem： Patrian Shoes222

9. National Treatment —Internal Taxation225

A. National Treatment226

Petros C. Mavroidis， The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade： A Commentary226

B. The Leading Case： Japan—Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages227

Japan—Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages （Panel Report）228

Japan—Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages （Appellate Body Report）230

C. Other Developments241

1. How Does One Prove That Products Are “Directly Competitive or Substitutable”？242

2. When Is a Tax Applied “So as to Afford Protection to Domestic Production”？243

Chile—Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages243

3. The Line Between a Tax and a Tariff and When Is a Tax “Applied， Directly or Indirectly， to&Products” and Subject to “Border Tax Adjustment” and National Treatment？247

Mexico—Soft Drinks251

D. Problems： Luxury Taxes and Carbon Taxes253

1. Patria’s “Luxury Tax”253

2. Eutopia’s “Carbon Tax”254

10. National Treatment —Internal Regulations255

A. What Is Regulatory Protectionism？256

1. The Dilemma of Regulating Regulations256

2. Why Regulatory Protection Is the Worst Kind of Protection257

B. The Leading Case： EC—Asbestos259

EC—Asbestos260

C. Other Developments275

1. “No Less Favorable”275

Joost Pauwelyn， The Unbearable Lightness of Likeness278

2. When Does a Regulation “Affect” Products？280

Tuna—Dolphin I281

D. Problems： Communian Beef and Flandrian Seals284

1. Communia’s Hormone Beef Ban284

2. Flandria’s Ban on Seal and Seal Products285

11. Most-Favored-Nation Treatment287

A. The MFN Obligation288

William Davey & Joost Pauwelyn， MFN-Unconditionality： A Legal Analysis of the Concept in View of Its Evolution in the GATT/WTO Jurisprudence289

Robert Hudec， “Like Product”： The Differences in Meaning in GATT Articles I and Ⅲ291

B. The Leading Case： EC—Bananas297

EC—Bananas298

C. Other Developments302

1. Does GATT Article I：1 Cover Both De Jure and De Facto Discrimination？302

Canada—Autos303

2. Any Advantage Must Be Accorded “Immediately and Unconditionally” to the Like Product of All Other WTO Members306

Belgian Family Allowances307

Steve Charnovitz， The Law of Environmental “PPMs” in the WTO： Debunking the Myth of Illegality308

3. Non-Discrimination for Government Procurement and State Trading Enterprises311

D. Problems： Moralian Soccer Balls and Eutopia and Flandria Revisited313

1. Moralia—Soccer Balls313

2. Eutopia’s Carbon Tax and Flandria—Seal Products（Revisited）314

12. Preferential Trade Agreements315

A. The Basics of Preferential Trading Arrangements315

B. The Leading Case： Turkey—Textiles321

Turkey—Textiles321

C. The Special Case of Regionalism Among Developing Countries328

D. The Pros and Cons329

Joel Trachtman， International Trade： Regionalism329

UNCTAD， Trade and Development Report， 2007333

Martin Jacques， The Death of Doha Signals the Demise of Globalisation336

E. Problem： The East-West Compact338

13. General Exceptions： GATT Article XX339

A. Requirements of Article XX： A Two-Step Analysis340

B. The Meaning of “Necessary”341

1. Brazil—Tyres341

Brazil —Tyres342

2. EC—Asbestos346

EC—Asbestos346

C. The Policy Concern Behind Article XX（A）： “Public Morals”352

United States—Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply o f Gambling and Betting Services354

D. Article XX（B）： “Protect Human， Animal or Plant Life or Health”357

E. Article XX（D）： “Secure Compliance with Laws or Regulations&”360

1. Korea—Beef360

2. Canada—Certain Measures Concerning Periodicals361

F. Article XX（G）： “Relating to the Conservation of Exhaustible Natural Resources”364

United States—Shrimp364

G. Problem： Tabac Tobacco368

14. General Exceptions： The Chapeau of GATT Article XX371

A. Introduction to the Chapeau371

United States—Gasoline372

B. The Leading Case： United States—Shrimp375

1. US—Shrimp375

United States—Shrimp376

2. The Compliance Decision： United States—Shrimp， 21.5386

United States—Shrimp， 21.5386

C. Other Developments393

1. “Between Countries Where the Same Conditions Prevail”393

2. “Disguised Restriction on Trade”394

EC—Asbestos394

D. The Role of Non-WTO Law in WTO Dispute Settlement396

Joel Trachtman， The Jurisdiction of the WTO396

Joost Pauwelyn， How to Win a WTO Dispute Based on Non-WTO Law？397

E. Problem： Novador and Sashimia403

15. Subsidies and Countervailing Duties405

A. Defining and Regulating Subsidies406

B. Requirements for a Subsidy408

1. Foregone “Government Revenue That Is Otherwise Due”409

United States—Tax Treatment for “Foreign Sales Corporations”409

2. Has a Benefit Been Conferred？412

3. Specificity414

C. Prohibited Subsidies415

Canada —Aircraft， 21.5416

D. Actionable Subsidies421

1. Injury to Domestic Producers421

2. Nullification or Impairment422

3. Serious Prejudice422

E. The Impact of a DSU Decision424

1. Prohibited Subsidies424

2. Actionable Subsidies425

F. Countervailing Duties426

1. WTO Rules Governing CVDs426

2. CVD Investigations in the United States427

3. CVD Investigations in the EC428

G. Does the SCM Agreement Help or Hurt？429

H. Agricultural Subsidies430

I. Problem： Mobilian Auto Loans433

16. Dumping and Anti-Dumping433

A. What Is Dumping？433

1. In the Ordinary Course of Trade435

US—Hot-Rolled Steel435

2. “Comparable Price”437

3. Other Methods of Calculating “Normal Value”438

B. Calculating the Dumping Margin—“Zeroing”440

EC—Bed Linens440

C. Determination of Injury444

D. Causation445

E. Anti-Dumping as the Exclusive Remedy for Dumping（“Specific Action Against Dumping”）446

US—Offset Act （Byrd Amendment）447

F. Is Anti-Dumping Good or Bad？450

Terence P. Stewart， Administration of the Antidumping Law： A Different Perspective451

Michael J. Trebilcock & Thomas M. Boddez， The Case for Liberalizing North American Trade Remedy Laws454

G. Trade Remedies in the European Union457

Directorate General for Trade of the European Commission， Anti-Dumping： Protection Against Dumped Imports457

Directorate General for Trade of the European Commission， Europe’s Trade Defence Instruments （Fact Sheet）459

H. Trade Remedies in the United States460

United States International Trade Commission， Trade Remedy Investigations： Antidumping and Countervailing Duty Investigations460

Jennifer A. Hillman， Testimony Before the Senate Finance Committee460

I. Problem： Welcome to the Firm464

17. Safeguards467

A. Agreement on Safeguards and GATT ⅩⅨ468

GATT Article ⅩⅨ： Emergency Action on Imports of Particular Products468

B. Argentina—Footwear471

Argentina —Footwear471

C. Causal Influences Other Than Increased Imports475

United States—Lamb475

D. “Domestic Industry”478

United States—Lamb478

E. Form， Extent， and Duration of the Safeguard481

1. Form481

2. Extent481

3. Duration483

4. Compensation483

F. The Justification for a Safeguard Exception484

Alan O. Sykes， The Safeguards Mess： A Critique of WTO Jurisprudence485

G. A Comparison Among WTO Trade Remedies488

H. Problem： Welcome （Back） to the Firm488

18. Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures489

A. The History and Scope of the SPS Agreement489

B. The Dilemma： Health and Safety vs. Market Access492

C. EC—Hormones493

1. The Standard of Review494

EC—Hormones494

US—Continued Suspension in EC—Hormones495

2. Harmonization： Article 3497

EC—Hormones497

3. Based on a Risk Assessment： Article 5499

EC—Hormones499

4. The “Rational Relationship” Requirement502

EC—Hormones502

EC—Hormones504

D. The Precautionary Principle and the SPS Agreement：Article 5.7507

E. Balancing Trade and Safety513

Andrew Guzman， Food Fears： Health and Safety at the WTO513

F. The Role of Scientific Experts517

Joost Pauwelyn， The WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary （SPS） Measures as Applied in the Three First SPS Disputes： EC—Hormones，Australia—Salmon， and Japan —Varietal517

G. Problem： Salmon Plague519

19. Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade523

A. What Is a Technical Barrier？523

B. EC—Sardines524

EC—Sardines524

C. The Substantive Requirements of the TBT Agreement531

1. Non-Discrimination532

2. Least-Restrictive Means532

3. International Standards534

EC—Sardines534

D. TBT Requirements and a Complex International Problem：Climate Change544

Andrew Green， Climate Change， Regulatory Policy and the WTO： How Constraining Are Trade Rules？544

E. Problem： Dolphin-Safe Tuna549

20. Trade in Services553

A. Background to the Services Industry and Trade in Services553

Bernard Hoekman & Carlos A. Primo Braga， Protection and Trade in Services： A Survey553

B. A Brief Description of the GATS558

Aaditya Mattoo， National Treatment in the GATS：Corner-Stone or Pandora’s Box？558

Bernard Hoekman & Carlos A. Primo Braga，Protection and Trade in Services： A Survey562

GATS and Democracy： A Joint Publication of the Seattle to Brussels Network， Introduction563

World Trade Organization， How ［GATS］ Schedules Are Structured566

C. The Leading Case： U.S.—Gambling568

U.S. —Gambling569

Joost Pauwelyn， Rien Ne Va Plus？ Distinguishing Domestic Regulation from Market Access in GATT and GATS？582

D. Problem： Complexian Distribution Services585

21. Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights589

A. A Primer on International IP590

UNCTAD—ICTSD， Project on IPRS and Sustainable Development， Intellectual Property Rights：Implications for Development590

B. A Brief Description of the TRIPS Agreement597

Advocates General to the European Court of Justice， Re： The Uruguay Round Treaties597

C. Case Study： The TRIPS Agreement and Access to Essential Medicines604

1. The Problem of Access to Medicine605

Commission on Intellectual Property Rights， U.K. Secretary of State for International Development， Integrating Intellectual Property Rights & Development Policy： Health605

Alan O. Sykes， TRIPS， Pharmaceuticals， Developing Countries and the Doha “Solution”609

2. Relevant Text of the TRIPS Agreement614

3. Commentary on the TRIPS Amendment615

Medecins sans Frontieres， Neither Expeditious， Nor a Solution： The WTO August 30th Decision Is Unworkable615

4. Other Developments617

D. Protection of Traditional Knowledge and the TRIPS Agreement619

E. Problem： Generic Transit Through Richland621

22. Development623

A. Background： The WTO and Developing Countries624

B. The Generalized System of Preferences and the Enabling Clause631

The Enabling Clause （Differential and More Favourable Treatment， Reciprocity and Fuller Participation of Developing Countries）631

C. The Leading Case： EC— Tariff Preferences633

EC—Tariff Preferences633

D. Does GSP Promote Development？644

Gene M. Grossman & Alan O. Sykes， A Preference for Development： The Law and Economics of GSP644

Andrew Charlton， A Proposal for Special Treatment in Market Access for Developing Countries in the Doha Round646

E. Other S&D Provisions in the GATT647

1. Article ⅩⅧ647

2. Part Ⅳ648

F. Problem： Justice in Trade650

Frank Garcia， Global Justice and the Bretton Woods Institutions651

Table of Cases655

Index657