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Part Ⅰ Restoration Process1

Chapter 1 Introduction3

1.1 Human-Caused Ecological Change4

1.2 The Historical Roots of Ecological Restoration7

Colonial solutions for new realms7

Soil and water protection8

Restoring natural heritage11

Community-based restoration14

1.3Defining Ecological Restoration15

1.4 Motivations and Incentives for Ecological Restoration16

Cultural drivers17

Economic drivers18

Demographic drivers20

Technological drivers21

Sociopolitical drivers22

1.5 Major Purposes of Ecological Restoration24

Species-based restoration25

Restoration of ecosystem function25

Restoration of ecosystem services26

A comprehensive framework27

Summary28

Apply What You’ve Learned29

Chapter 2 Diagnosis and Goal Setting31

2.1 Building Conceptual Ecological Models32

2.2 Drivers of Ecological Change34

Habitat conversion36

Pollution37

Overexploitation38

Species introductions40

Climate change41

Natural drivers41

2.3 Ecological Effects42

Population declines44

Effects of habitat fragmentation45

Spread of introduced species48

Species interactions49

Disturbances and succession51

Ecosystem decline52

2.4 Assessing Current Conditions55

Ecoregions55

Landscape analysis56

Site analysis60

Species analysis62

2.5 Synoptic Assessment of Ecological Resilience64

Resilience and response to stress65

Resilience classification schemes66

2.6 Establishing Goals for Ecological Restoration67

Approaches to goal setting67

Crafting SMART goals69

Goal setting for large-scale and high-risk restorations70

Using and refining goals during the restoration process73

Summary73

Apply What You’ve Learned74

Chapter 3 Planning77

3.1 Components of a Restoration Plan77

3.2 Planners and Stakeholders79

3.3 Scope of Planning81

3.4 Overview of the Planning Process83

3.5 Selecting and Building Scenarios84

Selecting scenarios85

Building scenarios87

3.6 Evaluating Alternative Futures88

3.7 Investigating Restoration Techniques90

Identifying potentially suitable techniques90

Restoration strategies and resilience91

3.8 Assessing the Feasibility of Proposed Restoration Plans93

3.9 Using and Refining Plans95

Summary96

Apply What You’ve Learned97

Chapter 4 Social and Institutional Support99

4.1 Societal Mechanisms for Creating Restoration Opportunities100

Legal mechanisms100

Economic mechanisms103

Social and behavioral mechanisms106

4.2 Organizations Engaged in Ecological Restorations108

Government108

Education，business，and industry110

Nongovernmental organizations115

Community-based organizations116

4.3 Establishing and Sustaining Community-Based Organizations118

Launching a community-based organization118

Leadership and governance120

Financial planning and fundraising121

Volunteers，staff，and project management121

Collaborating with other organizations124

4.4 Organizational Resilience125

Situation awareness126

Management of keystone vulnerabilities127

Adaptive capacity129

Summary130

Apply What You’ve Learned132

Chapter 5 Monitoring and Evaluation133

5.1 Adaptive Management134

5.2 Choosing Monitoring Parameters139

5.3 Monitoring Protocols145

Data collection methods145

Timing，frequency，and duration146

Spatial issues148

5.4 Interpreting Monitoring Data153

Comparisons to reference sites153

Data analysis155

Using data for decision making156

5.5 Managing Project Records and Monitoring Data Sets158

Case histories160

Data management160

5.6 Planning Monitoring Logistics161

Summary163

Apply What You’ve Learned164

Part Ⅱ Restoration Approaches167

Chapter 6 Landforms and Hydrology169

6.1 Wind171

Wind-shaped landforms171

Human alterations to aeolian processes172

Restoration of wind-eroded landscapes174

6.2 Surface Runoff and Erosion177

Water movement through landscapes178

Human alterations to surface runoff180

Restoration approaches for reducing surface runoff and soil erosion182

6.3 Groundwater187

Groundwater movement187

Human alterations to groundwater supplies188

Restoration of groundwater flow systems189

6.4 Inland Wetland and Lake Hydrology191

Hydrology of wetlands and lakes192

Human alterations to wetland hydrology194

Restoration of wetland hydrology196

6.5 River Hydrology and Landforms201

Processes that shape rivers202

Human alterations to river landforms and hydrology207

Restoration approaches for rivers209

6.6 Estuarine and Marine Environments216

Landforms and hydrology in coastal environments216

Human alterations to coastal landforms and hydrology218

Restoration of estuarine and marine landforms and hydrology220

6.7 Monitoring Landform and Hydrologic Change in Response to Restoration Action223

Summary225

Apply What You’ve Learned227

Chapter 7 Soil and Water Quality229

7.1 The Critical Zone230

Environments within the critical zone230

Biogeochemical cycles231

Biota in the critical zone233

Human-caused changes to biogeochemical cycles235

7.2 Rebuilding Impoverished Soils244

Soil recovery and revegetation246

Topsoil handling and application247

Accelerating soil development248

7.3 Reducing Nutrient Levels in Overenriched Soils251

7.4 Remediating Toxic Soils252

Contaminant sources253

Treatments for soil acidity and salinity255

Treatments for metals and organic toxins256

7.5 Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment258

7.6 Reversing Eutrophication in Aquatic Systems261

Eutrophication in marine and coastal ecosystems261

Eutrophication in freshwater lakes and rivers263

7.7 Remediating Toxins in Surface Waters264

Treatments for acidity and metals265

Treatments for oil spills267

7.8 Monitoring Changes in Water and Soil Quality268

Monitoring water quality269

Monitoring soil quality271

Summary273

Apply What You’ve Learned275

Chapter 8 Plants277

8.1 Facilitating Natural Recolonization278

Propagule sources for natural recolonization279

Promoting establishment282

Nurse plants and catalysts284

Limitations of natural recolonization285

8.2 Invasive Plant Control286

Landscape-level invasive plant control289

Site-based invasive plant control290

Herbicide use in ecological restoration292

Devising and implementing an invasive plant control strategy295

8.3 General Considerations for Planting and Seeding296

Species selection297

Plants or seeds？299

Sources of seeds and plants300

Cultivar use in ecological restoration303

8.4 Using Seeds for Revegetation305

Seeds in topsoil transfers305

Designing seed mixes306

Seeding rates307

Seed collecting308

Seed cleaning and storage310

Dormancy and germination311

Seed quality312

Seeding methods313

8.5 Using Plants for Revegetation314

Nursery-produced plants315

Vegetative transplants317

Planting plans318

Plant installation321

8.6 Restoring Microbial Mutualists322

8.7 Establishing and Managing Plant Communities325

8.8 Monitoring Restored Plant Communities and Populations327

Summary332

Apply What You’ve Learned334

Chapter 9 Invertebrates337

9.1 Invertebrate Habitat338

9.2 Selecting Focal Invertebrates341

9.3 Habitat Restoration344

Habitat structure344

Habitat heterogeneity347

Landscape-scale stressors349

Single-species considerations352

9.4 Nontarget Impacts of Restoration Actions on Invertebrates353

9.5 Control of Introduced Invertebrates354

9.6 Invertebrate Species Translocations356

Establishing a rationale for translocations356

Founding populations357

Releases361

9.7 Management of Invertebrate Habitat364

9.8 Monitoring Invertebrates in Restored Ecosystems366

Summary368

Apply What You’ve Learned371

Chapter 10 Vertebrates373

10.1 Selecting Focal Vertebrates374

10.2 Reducing Effects of Fragmentation and Lost Connectivity377

10.3 Site-Based Habitat Restoration380

10.4 Curbing Overexploitation385

10.5 Manipulating Trophic Interactions389

10.6 Controlling Introduced Vertebrates390

Eradication versus reduction390

Physical methods392

Chemical methods393

Biological methods394

Devising a control program395

Unexpected consequences of invasive vertebrate control395

10.7 Vertebrate Species Translocations397

Translocation assessment and planning397

Source populations399

Captive breeding401

Releases405

10.8 Monitoring Vertebrates in Restored Ecosystems409

Summary412

Apply What You’ve Learned414

Part Ⅲ Restoration Cases415

Case A Alaska’s North Slope417

Case B Baghmara Community Forest425

Case C Carpentaria Ghost Nets Programme431

Case D Great Barrier Reef Marine Park437

Case E Jarrah Forests447

Case F Large Blue Butterfly455

Case G Mana Island461

Case H Minneapolis Chain of Lakes471

Case I Monte Pascoal-Pau Brasil Corridor Project479

Case J Namaqualand Restoration Initiative485

Case K Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge493

Case L Provo River503

Case M Sargent’s Cherry Palm513

Case N Skjern River521

Case O Sudbury Barrens527

Case P Sweetwater Marsh535

Case Q Tasmanian Devil543

Case R Tram Chim National Park551

Case S Westhoek Nature Reserve559

Illustration Credits569

Glossary571

References581

Index603