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1 Chemistry and Measurement1

An Introduction to Chemistry2

1.1 Modern Chemistry：A Brief Glimpse2

1.2 Experiment and Explanation4

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Birth of the Post-it Note？5

1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass6

1.4 Matter：Physical State and Chemical Constitution9

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography14

Physical Measurements16

1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures16

1.6 SI Units20

1.7 Derived Units24

1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis（Factor-Label Method）27

A Checklist for Review31

Review Questions32

Conceptual Problems32

Practice Problems33

General Problems37

Cumulative-Skills Problems39

Media Activities40

2Atoms，Molecules，and Ions41

Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure42

2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter42

2.2 The Structure of the Atom45

2.3 Nuclear Structure； Isotopes48

2.4 Atomic Weights50

2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements53

Chemical Substances：Formulas and Names55

2.6 Chemical Formulas； Molecular and Ionic Substances55

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability56

2.7 Organic Compounds61

2.8 Naming Simple Compounds62

Chemical Reactions：Equations73

2.9 Writing Chemical Equations73

2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations74

A Checklist for Review76

Review Questions78

Conceptual Problems78

Practice Problems79

General Problems83

Cumulative-Skills Problems85

Media Activities85

3Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations86

Mass and Moles of Substance87

3.1 Molecular Weight and Formula Weight87

3.2 The Mole Concept89

Determining Chemical Formulas93

3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula93

3.4 Elemental Analysis：Percentages of Carbon，Hydrogen，and Oxygen95

3.5 Determining Formulas97

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula98

Stoichiometry：Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions102

3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation103

3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction104

3.8 Limiting Reactant； Theoretical and Percentage Yields107

A Checklist for Review113

Review Questions114

Conceptual Problems114

Practice Problems115

General Problems120

Cumulative-Skills Problems121

Media Activities121

4Chemical Reactions123

Ions in Aqueous Solution124

4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules124

4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations129

Types of Chemical Reactions133

4.3 Precipitation Reactions133

4.4 Acid-Base Reactions136

4.5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions144

4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation-Reduction Equations152

Working with Solutions155

4.7 Molar Concentration155

4.8 Diluting Solutions157

Quantitative Analysis159

4.9 Gravimetric Analysis159

4.10 Volumetric Analysis161

A Checklist for Review163

Review Questions165

Conceptual Problems165

Practice Problems166

General Problems170

Cumulative-Skills Problems172

Media Activities174

5The Gaseous State175

Gas Laws176

5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement176

5.2 Empirical Gas Laws178

5.3 The Ideal Gas Law187

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Nitric Oxide Gas and Biological Signaling188

5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes194

5.5 Gas Mixtures； Law of Partial Pressures196

Kinetic-Molecular Theory200

5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas201

5.7 Molecular Speeds； Diffusion and Effusion204

5.8 Real Gases209

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect213

A Checklist for Review215

Review Questions216

Conceptual Problems217

Practice Problems218

General Problems221

Cumulative-Skills Problems222

Media Activities223

6Thermochemistry224

Understanding Heats of Reaction225

6.1 Energy and Its Units225

6.2 Heat of Reaction228

6.3 Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change231

6.4 Thermochemical Equations234

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lucifers and Other Matches236

6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction237

6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction238

Using Heats of Reaction242

6.7 Hess’s Law242

6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation246

6.9 Fuels—Foods，Commercial Fuels，and Rocket Fuels251

A Checklist for Review254

Review Questions255

Conceptual Problems255

Practice Problems256

General Problems259

Cumulative-Skills Problems262

Media Activities263

7Quantum Theory of the Atom264

Light Waves，Photons，and the Bohr Theory265

7.1 The Wave Nature of Light265

7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons269

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays271

7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom271

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lasers and Compact Disc Players276

Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Numbers278

7.4 Quantum Mechanics278

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Scanning Tunneling Microscopy282

7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals282

A Checklist for Review288

Review Questions289

Conceptual Problems289

Practice Problems290

General Problems292

Cumulative-Skills Problems292

Media Activities293

8Electron Configurations and Periodicity294

Electronic Structure of Atoms295

8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle295

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Nuclear Magnetic Resonance（NMR）298

8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table300

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS X Rays，Atomic Numbers，and Orbital Structure（Photoelectron Spectroscopy）305

8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table306

8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms； Hund’s Rule309

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Levitating Frogs and People311

Periodicity of the Elements312

8.5 Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table312

8.6 Some Periodic Properties313

8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements320

A Checklist for Review323

Review Questions324

Conceptual Problems324

Practice Problems325

General Problems326

Cumulative-Skills Problems327

Media Activities327

9Ionic and Covalent Bonding328

Ionic Bonds329

9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds329

9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions334

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry335

9.3 Ionic Radii339

Covalent Bonds341

9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds341

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin344

9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds； Electronegativity345

9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas347

9.7 Delocalized Bonding：Resonance350

9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule352

9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas355

9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order358

9.11 Bond Energy359

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations of Chemical Bonds363

A Checklist for Review365

Review Questions366

Conceptual Problems366

Practice Problems367

General Problems369

Cumulative-Skills Problems370

Media Activities371

10Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding Theory372

Molecular Geometry and Directional Bonding374

10.1 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion（VSEPR） Model374

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules384

10.2 Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry385

10.3 Valence Bond Theory388

10.4 Description of Multiple Bonding395

Molecular Orbital Theory400

10.5 Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory400

10.6 Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules of the Second-Period Elements403

10.7 Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding407

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Human Vision409

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Stratospheric Ozone（An Absorber of Ultraviolet Rays）410

A Checklist for Review410

Review Questions412

Conceptual Problems412

Practice Problems413

General Problems415

Cumulative-Skills Problems416

Media Activities416

11States of Matter； Liquids and Solids418

11.1 Comparison of Gases，Liquids，and Solids419

Changes of State420

11.2 Phase Transitions420

11.3 Phase Diagrams430

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Removing Caffeine from Coffee433

Liquid State434

11.4 Properties of Liquids：Surface Tension and Viscosity434

11.5 Intermolecular Forces； Explaining Liquid Properties436

Solid State444

11.6 Classification of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units444

11.7 Crystalline Solids； Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells448

11.8 Structures of Some Crystalline Solids452

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Liquid-Crystal Displays453

11.9 Calculations Involving Unit-Cell Dimensions460

11.10 Determining Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction462

INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Automated X-Ray Diffractometry464

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Water（A Special Substance for Planet Earth）465

A Checklist for Review467

Review Questions469

Conceptual Problems469

Practice Problems470

General Problems474

Cumulative-Skills Problems476

Media Activities477

12Solutions478

Solution Formation479

12.1 Types of Solutions479

12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process481

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia486

12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility487

Colligative Properties490

12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration490

12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution496

12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression500

12.7 Osmosis504

12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions508

Colloid Formation509

12.9 Colloids509

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The World’s Smallest Test Tubes514

A Checklist for Review514

Review Questions516

Conceptual Problems517

Practice Problems518

General Problems520

Cumulative-Skills Problems521

Media Activities522

13Materials of Technology523

Metals and Metallurgy524

13.1 Natural Sources of the Metallic Elements525

13.2 Metallurgy527

13.3 Bonding in Metals534

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Superconductivity537

Nonmetallic Materials537

13.4 Diamond，Graphite，the Fullerenes，and Nanotechnology538

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Buckminsterfullerene—A Third Form of Carbon542

13.5 Semiconductors542

13.6 Silicon，Silica，and Silicates546

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Silica Aerogels，the Lightest “Solids”550

13.7 Ceramics550

13.8 Composites552

A Checklist for Review553

Review Questions554

Conceptual Problems555

Practice Problems555

General Problems556

Media Activities557

14Rates of Reaction558

Reaction Rates559

14.1 Definition of Reaction Rate560

14.2 Experimental Determination of Rate564

14.3 Dependence of Rate on Concentration566

14.4 Change of Concentration with Time572

14.5 Temperature and Rate； Collision and Transition-State Theories581

14.6 Arrhenius Equation585

Reaction Mechanisms588

14.7 Elementary Reactions588

14.8 The Rate Law and the Mechanism592

14.9 Catalysis597

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Seeing Molecules React602

A Checklist for Review602

Review Questions605

Conceptual Problems606

Practice Problems607

General Problems612

Cumulative-Skills Problems615

Media Activities616

15Chemical Equilibrium617

Describing Chemical Equilibrium618

15.1 Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium618

15.2 The Equilibrium Constant621

15.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria； Solvents in Homogeneous Equilibria628

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots629

Using the Equilibrium Constant631

15.4 Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant631

15.5 Predicting the Direction of Reaction632

15.6 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations634

Changing the Reaction Conditions； Le Chatelier’s Principle639

15.7 Removing Products or Adding Reactants639

15.8 Changing the Pressure and Temperature642

15.9 Effect of a Catalyst647

A Checklist for Review649

Review Questions649

Conceptual Problems650

Practice Problems651

General Problems655

Cumulative-Skills Problems658

Media Activities658

16Acids and Bases659

Acid-Base Concepts660

16.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases660

16.2 Bronsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases662

16.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases664

Acid and Base Strengths666

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Taking Your Medicine667

16.4 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases667

16.5 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength670

Self-Ionization of Water and pH673

16.6 Self-Ionization of Water673

16.7 Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base674

16.8 The pH of a Solution677

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Unclogging the Sink and Other Chores682

A Checklist for Review682

Review Questions683

Conceptual Problems684

Practice Problems684

General Problems687

Cumulative-Skills Problems688

Media Activities689

17Acid-Base Equilibria690

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base691

17.1 Acid-Ionization Equilibria691

17.2 Polyprotic Acids698

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Acid Rain700

17.3 Base-Ionization Equilibria702

17.4 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions705

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base with Another Solute710

17.5 Common-Ion Effect710

17.6 Buffers713

17.7 Acid-Base Titration Curves720

A Checklist for Review724

Review Questions725

Conceptual Problems726

Practice Problems727

General Problems729

Cumulative-Skills Problems732

Media Activities733

18Solubility and Complex-lon Equilibria734

Solubility Equilibria735

18.1 The Solubility Product Constant735

18.2 Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect739

18.3 Precipitation Calculations742

18.4 Effect of pH on Solubility746

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Limestone Caves748

Complex-Ion Equilibria749

18.5 Complex-Ion Formation749

18.6 Complex Ions and Solubility752

An Application of Solubility Equilibria754

18.7 Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions754

A Checklist for Review757

Review Questions758

Conceptual Problems758

Practice Problems759

General Problems760

Cumulative-Skills Problems762

Media Activities763

19Thermodynamics and Equilibrium764

19.1 First Law of Thermodynamics； Enthalpy765

Spontaneous Processes and Entropy768

19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics769

19.3 Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics775

Free-Energy Concept779

19.4 Free Energy and Spontaneity779

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Coupling of Reactions784

19.5 Interpretation of Free Energy784

Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants786

19.6 Relating ΔG° to the Equilibrium Constant786

19.7 Change of Free Energy with Temperature790

A Checklist for Review793

Review Questions794

Conceptual Problems795

Practice Problems796

General Problems798

Cumulative-Skills Problems801

Media Activities801

20Electrochemistry802

Half-Reactions803

20.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions803

Voltaic Cells808

20.2 Construction of Voltaic Cells808

20.3 Notation for Voltaic Cells811

20.4 Electromotive Force813

20.5 Standard Cell emfs and Standard Electrode Potentials815

20.6 Equilibrium Constants from emfs823

20.7 Dependence of emf on Concentration826

20.8 Some Commercial Voltaic Cells830

Electrolytic Cells834

20.9 Electrolysis of Molten Salts834

20.10 Aqueous Electrolysis836

20.11 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis841

A Checklist for Review843

Review Questions844

Conceptual Problems845

Practice Problems846

General Problems850

Cumulative-Skills Problems852

Media Activity853

21Nuclear Chemistry854

Radioactivity and Nuclear Bombardment Reactions855

21.1 Radioactivity855

21.2 Nuclear Bombardment Reactions864

21.3 Radiations and Matter：Detection and Biological Effects869

21.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay871

21.5 Applications of Radioactive Isotopes878

Energy of Nuclear Reactions882

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Positron Emission Tomography（PET）883

21.6 Mass-Energy Calculations884

21.7 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion888

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident892

A Checklist for Review892

Review Questions894

Conceptual Problems894

Practice Problems895

General Problems898

Cumulative-Skills Problems899

Media Activities899

22Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements900

22.1 General Observations About the Main-Group Elements901

Chemistry of the Main-Group Metals903

22.2 Group ⅠA：The Alkali Metals904

22.3 Group ⅡA：The Alkaline Earth Metals910

22.4 Group ⅢA and Group ⅣA Metals916

Chemistry of the Nonmetals920

22.5 Hydrogen921

22.6 Group ⅣA：The Carbon Family924

22.7 Group ⅤA：Nitrogen and the Phosphorus Family929

22.8 Group ⅥA：Oxygen and the Sulfur Family937

22.9 Group ⅦA：The Halogens943

22.10 Group ⅧA：The Noble Gases947

A Checklist for Review Review Questions Conceptual Problems Practice Problems General Problems Media Activities949

23The Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds958

Properties of the Transition Elements959

23.1 Periodic Trends in the Transition Elements959

23.2 The Chemistry of Two Transition Elements964

Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds967

23.3 Formation and Structure of Complexes968

23.4 Naming Coordination Compounds972

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability973

23.5 Structure and Isomerism in Coordination Compounds976

23.6 Valence Bond Theory of Complexes984

23.7 Crystal Field Theory985

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from Oxyhemoglobin992

A Checklist for Review Review Questions Conceptual Problems Practice Problems General Problems Media Activities993

24Organic Chemistry998

24.1 The Bonding of Carbon999

Hydrocarbons999

24.2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes1000

24.3 Alkenes and Alkynes1008

24.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons1012

24.5 Naming Hydrocarbons1015

Derivatives of Hydrocarbons1022

24.6 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen1022

24.7 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen1027

A Checklist for Review1029

Review Questions1029

Conceptual Problems1030

Practice Problems1031

General Problems1034

Media Activities1035

25Polymer Materials：Synthetic and Biological1036

Synthetic Polymers1037

25.1 Synthesis of Organic Polymers1037

A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Discovery of Nylon1040

25.2 Electrically Conducting Polymers1042

Biological Polymers1044

25.3 Proteins1044

25.4 Nucleic Acids1049