文化之重：价值、行为、体制和组织的跨国比较 第2版PDF|Epub|txt|kindle电子书版本网盘下载

文化之重：价值、行为、体制和组织的跨国比较 第2版PDF格式电子书版下载

注意：本站所有压缩包均有解压码： 点击下载压缩包解压工具

1．Values and Culture1

Summary of This Chapter1

Definitions and Distinctions1

Mental Programs1

Describing Mental Programs in Measurable Terms4

Values5

Measuring Values7

Culture9

National Cultures and Their Stability11

National Character and National Stereotypes13

Cultural Relativism15

Studying Culture15

Comparing Cultures:Changing the Level of Analysis15

Avoiding Ethnocentrism17

The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach19

Language and Translation21

Matching Samples:Functional Equivalence23

Modal and Marginal Phenomena24

Dimensions of Culture24

The Specific and the General24

Searching for Dimensions of Culture26

Dimensions Versus Typologies28

Five Basic Problems of National Societies28

Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature:Theory Based29

Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature:Empirical31

Culture Change34

The Process of Culture Change34

Culture Change and the IBM Data34

Notes36

2．Data Collection,Treatment,and Validation41

Summary of This Chapter41

The Research Settings41

The IBM Corporation41

The Use of Attitude Surveysin IBM43

Questionnaire Translation and Survey Administration46

The IBM Survey Database48

A Second Research Setting:IMEDE Business School49

Data Treatment49

Frequency Distributions and Central Tendency Within Groups49

ANOVA:Country,Occupation,Gender,and Age50

Comparing 40 Countries:Matching Occupations51

Extension to 50 Countries Plus Three Regions52

Selecting Stable Questions52

Eclectic Analysis:Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance53

Wark Goal Importance Data:Eliminating Acquiescence56

Work Goal Importance:Ecological Factor Analysis58

Putting the Four Dimensions Together58

Value Shifts in IBM Between 1967-69 and 1971-7360

Correlations Between Index Scores60

Country Clusters62

Multilingual Countries:Belgium,Switzerland,and Yugoslavia63

Validation65

The Reliability of Country Dimension Scores65

Replicating the IBM Research66

Comparing With Data From Other Sources67

Economic,Geographic,and Demographic Indicators68

Adding a Fifth Dimension69

Studying Organizational Cultures71

Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed73

Notes73

3．Power Distance79

Summary of This Chapter79

Inequality and Power Distance79

On Animal and Human Inequality79

Inequality in Society80

Inequality in Organizations82

The Concept of Power Distance83

Power Distance and Human Inequality84

Measuring National Differences in Power Distance in IBM84

Organization of Chapters 3 Through 784

A Power Distance Index for IBM Countries85

Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation88

Gender Differences in Power Distance90

Country Power Distance Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions90

Validating PDI Against Data From Other Sources91

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey91

PDI Versus Studies of General Values in Society92

Summary of General Connotations of the Power Distance Index Found in Survey Material96

Origins and Implications of Country Power Distance Differences97

The Power Distance Societal Norm97

Power Distance in the Family98

Power Distance,Schools,and Educational Systems100

Power Distance in Work and Organization102

Power Distance,Worker Participation,and"Industrial Democracy"106

Power Distance and Political Systems110

Power Distance and Religion,Ideology,and Theories of Power113

Power Distance and Aviation Safety115

Predictors of PDI:Latitude,Population Size,and Wealth115

Power Distance and Historical Factors:D'Iribarne's Contribution117

Power Distance and Historical Factors:The Roman Empire and Colonialism119

The Future of Power Distance Differences121

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter123

Calculating the Power Distance Index by Country123

Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation125

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey126

Results of Other Survey Studies Significantly Correlated With PDI126

Indexes at the National Level Significantly Correlated With PDI128

PDI Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators132

Trends in PDI135

Notes137

4．Uncertainty Avoidance145

Summary of This Chapter145

The Concept of Uncertainty Avoidance145

Time,Future,Uncertainty,and Anxiety145

Uncertainty Avoidance in Organizations146

Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance148

Measuring National Differences in Uncertainty Avoidance in IBM148

An Uncertainty Avoidance Indexfor IBM Countries148

Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Power Distance150

Occupation and Gender Differences in the Scores on the Uncertainty Avoidance Items151

Country UAI Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions153

Validating UAI Against Data From Other Sources154

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey154

UAI,Anxiety,and Emotions:Studies by Lynn and Others155

UAI and Subjective Well-Being157

UAI Versus Studies of General Values in Society158

Summary of General Connotations of the Uncertainty Avoidance Index Found in Survey Material159

Origins and Implications of Country Uncertainty Avoidance Differences159

The Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Norm159

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family161

Uncertainty Avoidance,Schools,and Educational Systems162

UAI and Achievement Motivation:McClelland's Data163

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Work Situation165

Uncertainty Avoidance and Consumer Behavior170

Uncertainty Avoidance and Political Systems171

Uncertainty Avoidance and Legislation174

Uncertainty Avoidance,Nationalism,and Xenophobia175

Uncertainty Avoidance and Religions176

Uncertainty Avoidance,Theories,and Games177

Predictors of UAI179

Uncertainty Avoidance and Historical Factors179

The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences181

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter183

Calculating the Uncertainty Avoidance Index by Country183

Calculating Differences in Item Scores by Occupation183

Country UAI,Average Age of Respondents,and Other IBM Survey Questions184

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey186

Studies of Stress and Well-Being188

McClelland's Study of Motivation190

Results of Other Surveys Correlated With UAI190

Indexes at the National Level Correlated With UAI197

UAI Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators198

Trends in UAI198

Notes199

5．Individualism and Collectivism209

Summary of This Chapter209

The Individual and the Collectivity209

Individualism in Society209

Individualism in Organizations and Organization Theories212

Measuring National Differences in Individualism in IBM214

An Individualism Index for Countries in the IBM Sample214

Societal Versus Individual Individualism and Collectivism,and Whether Ind and Col Are One or Two Dimensions215

Individualism Versus Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance216

Individualism and Occupation,Gender,and Age218

Country Individualism Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions218

Validating IDV Against Data From Other Sources219

Distinguishing IDV From PDI and GNP/Capita219

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey219

IDV Versus Schwartz's Values Surveys of Teachers and Students220

IDV Versus Smith and Dugan's Analysis of Trompenaars's Data221

IDV Versus Inglehart's Analysis of the World Values Survey223

IDV Scores and Other Studies of General Values224

Summary of Value Connotations of the Individualism Index Found in Surveys and Related Material225

Origins and Implications of Country Individualism Differences225

The Individualism Societal Norm225

Individualism and Collectivism in the Family225

Individualism and Collectivism Versus Personality and Behavior231

Individualism and Collectivism in Language Use and Group Identity233

Individualism and Collectivism,Schools,and Educational Systems234

Individualism and Collectivism in the Work Situation235

Collectivism and the Applicability of Management Methods240

Individualism and Consumer Behavior241

Health and Disability in Individualist and Collectivist Societies242

Individualism or Collectivism,Political Systems,and Legislation243

Individualism and Collectivism,Religions,and Ideas249

Predictors of IDV:Wealth and Latitude250

Individualism and Historical Factors253

The Future of Individualism Differences254

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter255

Calculating the Individualism Index by Country255

Work Goal Dimensions by Occupation257

Country IDV Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions258

Earlier Studies of Work Goals in IBM258

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey260

Results of Other Surveys Correlated With IDV264

Indexes at the National Level Correlated With IDV268

IDV Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators269

Trends in IDV272

Notes273

6．Masculinity and Femininity279

Summary of This Chapter279

Sexes,Genders,and Gender Roles279

Absolute,Statistical,and Social Sex Differences279

Gender Differences in Work Goals281

Measuring National Differences in Masculinity in IBM284

A Masculinity Index for Countries in the IBM Sample284

Masculinity and Occupation,Gender,and Age285

Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions290

MAS and Work Centrality in IBM291

Societal Versus Individual Masculinity and Femininity,and Whether Mas and Fem Are One or Two Dimensions292

Masculinity Versus Individualism293

Validating MAS Against Data From Other Sources294

The Need to Control for Wealth Differences294

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey295

MAS Scores Versus Other Values Surveys296

Summary of Connotations of the Masculinity Index Found in Surveys and Related Material297

Origins and Implications of Country Masculinity Differences297

The Masculinity Societal Norm297

Masculinity and Femininity in the Family298

Masculinity,Schools,and Educational Systems303

Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles305

Masculinity and Consumer Behavior310

Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace311

Masculinity,Femininity,and Political Priorities317

Masculinity,Femininity,and Political Mores321

Masculinity and Sexual Behavior322

Masculinity,Femininity,and Religion327

Masculinity and Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Factors331

Masculinity and(Pre)Historical Factors331

The Future of Masculinity/Femininity Differences333

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter335

Computing MAS for Old and New Cases335

Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions335

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey335

Results of Other Studies Correlated With MAS337

MAS Versus Eight Geographic,Economic,and Demographic Indicators339

Trends in MAS340

Notes341

7．Long-Versus Short-Term Orientation351

Summary of This Chapter351

East Versus West351

Cultural Biases in the Researchers'Minds351

The Chinese Value Survey352

Long-Term Orientation as a Fifth Dimension353

Measuring and Validating National Differences in Long-Term Orientation355

A Long-Term Orientation Indexfor 23 Countries355

Replications of the Measurement of Long-Term Orientation355

Validating LTO Against Other Studies of Values355

LTO and Savings Rates:Read's Study358

Summary of Validations and Connotations of the Long-Term Orientation Index Found in Surveys and Related Material359

Implications of Country Long-Term Orientation Differences359

LTO and Family,Social Relationships,and Work359

LTO and Ways of Thinking362

LTO and Economic Growth365

Long-and Short-Term Orientation in the Hindu and Muslim Worlds368

African Values:A New Dimension?369

The Future of Long-Term Orientation370

Notes370

8．Cultures in Organizations373

Summary of This Chapter373

Organizations and National Cultures373

There Are No Universal Solutions to Organization and Management Problems373

The Functioning of Organizations375

Culture and Organization Theories:Nationality Constrains Rationality378

Planning,Control,and Accounting381

Corporate Governance384

Motivation and Compensation385

Leadership and Empowerment388

Management Development and Organization Development390

Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives391

Organizational Cultures391

The"Organizational Culture"Construct391

Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures393

The IRIC Organizational Culture Research Project395

Dimensions of Organizational Cultures397

Validating the Practice Dimensions400

Organizational Subcultures405

The Usefulness of the Organizational Culture Construct408

How Universal Are the Six Organizational Culture Diniensions?410

Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures411

Implications of the Level of Analysis:Gardens,Bouquets,and Flowers413

Occupational Cultures414

Notes415

9．Intercultural Encounters423

Summary of This Chapter423

Intercultural Communication and Cooperation423

General Principles423

Language and Discourse425

Culture Shock and Expatriate Failure425

Training in Intercultural Competence427

Political Issues429

Minorities,Migrants,and Refugees429

International Politics and International Organizations431

Intercultural Negotiations435

Economic Development,Nondevelopment,and Development Cooperation437

Multinational Business440

The Functioning of Multinational Business Organizations440

International Acquisitions,Mergers,and Joint Ventures445

International Marketing,Advertising,and Consumer Behavior448

Schools,Tourism,and a Look Ahead451

Intercultural Encounters in Schools451

Intercultural Encounters in Tourism452

The Influence of New Technology453

Cultural Relativism,Convergence,and Divergence453

Notes454

10．Using Culture Dimension Scores in Theory and Research461

Summary of This Chapter461

Applications of the Dimensional Model461

The Fortunes of Continued Research in Six Areas461

Fields of Application462

Replications and Their Pitfalls463

Extensions to New Countries464

Using the Dimensional Model as a Paradigm465

Closing Remarks466

Notes466

AppendixesAppendix 1467

Questions From the IBM Attitude Survey Questionnaire Referred to in This BookAppendix 2475

Country Scores on A,B,and C Questions(except A5-A32 and C1-C8)Appendix 3483

Standardized Country and Occupation Scores for Work Goals(questions A5-18 and C1-C8)Appendix 4491

Replicating the IBM-Style Cross-National SurveyAppendix 5499

Summary of Country Index Scores(including additions)Appendix 6503

Summary of Significant Correlations of Country Index Scores With Data From Other SourcesAppendix 7521

Two Case Studies From the IRIC Organizational Cultures Research ProjectAppendix 8523

The Author's ValuesReferences525

Name Index569

Subject Index585

About the Author599