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Perspectives on language and cognition：From empiricism to rationalism and back again1

Dominiek Sandra1

1．Language and cognition：Defining aspects of human nature1

2．Language without mind：Structuralism and behaviorism3

3．Language and mind：The mentalist era5

4．Language and cognition：A twin pair7

5．The contents of this volume12

Artificial intelligence16

Steven Gillis,Walter Daelemans＆Koenraad DeSmedt16

1．Introduction16

2．A brief historical note17

3．The physical symbol system hypothesis20

4．Paradigms for the representation of knowledge22

4.1 State-space search22

4.2 Logic-based formalisms24

4.3 Semantic network formalisms and frames24

4.4 Rule-based formalisms26

5．Linguistic symbol manipulation in semantics and pragmatics27

5.1 Semantics28

5.2 Knowledge and intentions29

5.3 Utterances in context30

5.4 Modeling the user31

5.4.1 User modeling and dialog systems31

5.4.2 Dimensions of user models31

5.4.3 Construction of a user model32

5.4.4 Instantiating the user model：Collecting evidence in dialog33

5.5 Generating discourse34

6．Epilogue36

Categorization41

Eleanor Rosch41

1．The classical view of categorization41

2．Challenges and alternatives to the classical view42

2.1 Graded structure and prototypes42

2.2 Non-arbitrariness and coherence of categories45

3．Modeling problems and critiques of graded structure46

3.1 Mathematical models46

3.2 Critiques of graded structure47

4．Categories as theories48

5．Conclusion51

Cerebral division of labour in verbal communication53

Michel Paradis53

1．Introduction53

2．Dyshyponoia54

3．Right-hemisphere involvement55

4．Implicit pragmatic competence and metapragmatic knowledge59

5．Inference61

6．The legitimacy of sentence grammars63

7．Semantics and pragmatics in the interpretation of an utterance66

8．Language vs.verbal communication：What's in a name?70

9．Conclusion72

Cognitive grammar78

Ronald W.Langacker78

1．Introduction78

2．Organization79

3．Conceptualist semantics81

4．Grammar as symbolization82

Cognitive science86

Seana Coulson＆Teenie Matlock86

1．Definition86

2．History of contributing fields87

2.1 Philosophy87

2.2 Artificial intelligence88

2.3 Psychology88

2.4 Linguistics90

2.5 Neuroscience90

2.6 Current directions91

3．Methods92

3.1 Methods for investigating behavior92

3.1.1 Psychological experiments92

3.1.2 Naturalistic observation and ethnography93

3.1.3 Linguistic methodologies94

3.1.4 Eye-tracking94

3.2 Neuroscience techniques95

3.2.1 Neuropsychology and lesion studies95

3.2.2 Brain imaging96

3.2.3 Event-related potentials97

3.3 Computational techniques97

3.3.1 Computational modeling97

3.3.2 Corpus research98

4．Issues99

4.1 The mind-body problem99

4.2 From genes to behavior100

4.3 Representation and rationality101

5．Cognitive science and pragmatics102

5.1 Definition102

5.2 Methods103

5.3 Issues103

5.4 Convergent interests103

5.4.1 World knowledge and cultural knowledge103

5.4.2 Mappings104

5.4.3 Conceptual integration105

5.5 Conclusions106

Comprehension vs.production110

J.Cooper Cutting110

1．Introduction110

2．The structure of the lexicon112

3．Building syntax115

4．The speaker as a listener117

5．Conclusions120

Connectionism126

Ton Weijters＆Antal van denBosch126

1．Introduction126

2．Connectionist modeling126

2.1 Learning within the perceptron128

2.2 Backpropagation129

2.3 Self-organizing feature maps130

3．Connectionist modeling and pragmatics131

4．Discussion133

Consciousness and language135

Wallace Chafe136

1．Properties of consciousness136

2．Foci of consciousness137

3．Activation cost139

4．Discourse topics140

5．Immediacy and displacement142

6．Conclusion144

Developmental psychology146

Susan M.Ervin-Tripp146

1．Historical overview146

2．The concept of development147

3．Major research issues147

3.1 Causes of development147

3.2 Continuities and discontinuities148

3.3 Critical periods148

3.4 Individual and group differences148

4．Points of view on development148

4.1 Biological-maturational perspectives148

4.2 Triggering theories149

4.3 Constructivism149

4.4 Socialization and learning149

5．Methods of study149

5.1 Longitudinal vs.cross-sectional studies150

5.2 Comparative and ethnographic research150

5.3 Individual differences150

5.4 Sampling and generalization151

6．Pragmatic perspectives on development151

7．Some relations of pragmatics to developmental issues152

7.1 Sources of language development152

7.2 Language of reference in relation to cognition152

7.3 Effects of talk on thought152

7.4 The relation of social development and language153

7.5 The development of instrumental language153

7.6 Egocentrism,perspective-taking,social cognition and language change153

7.7 Play with and through language153

7.8 Learning social styles and identities154

7.9 Bilingualism and bicultural development154

8．Collaborative research potential154

Experimentation157

Dominiek Sandra157

1．Theoretical approaches to science157

2．Empirical approaches to science160

3．Experimentation162

3.1 Issues in experimental design162

3.1.1 Operationalization of the experimental hypothesis162

3.1.2 Independent and dependent variables164

3.1.3 Choosing the dependent variable：How to best tap into the targeted process165

3.1.4 The orthogonal experimental design167

3.1.5 The concept of matching and the necessity of a control condition168

3.1.6 Manipulations within or between participants(or items)169

3.1.7 The counterbalancing technique171

3.2 The rationale behind statistical significance testing174

3.2.1 Basic assumption：The observed difference is due to chance174

3.2.2 Calling a result statistically significant is taking a calculated risk176

3.2.3 Main effects and interaction effects177

3.3 Statistical tests179

3.3.1 Types of measurement scales179

3.3.2 Non-parametric statistics180

3.3.2.1 The chi-square test180

3.3.2.2 The Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney test183

3.3.3 Parametric statistics183

3.3.3.1 Some general remarks183

3.3.3.2 The Student's t-test185

3.3.3.3 Analysis of variance(ANOVA)191

3.3.3.4 Measuring the associative strength between variables195

4．Conclusion198

Language acquisition201

Steven Gillis＆Dorit Ravid201

1．Introduction201

2．Central issues and main controversies203

2.1 Nativism204

2.2 Modularity206

2.3 Lexical principles207

2.4 Empiricism209

2.5 Learning mechanisms：Bootstrapping213

2.5.1 Distributional bootstrapping214

2.5.2 Semantic bootstrapping214

2.5.3 Syntactic bootstrapping215

2.5.4 Prosodic bootstrapping216

2.6 Variation217

2.6.1 Crosslinguistic variation218

2.6.2 Inter-individual variation219

2.6.3 Intra-individual variation220

3．Methodologies221

3.1 Large-scale corpora collections222

3.2 Computer simulations223

3.3 Brain imaging techniques224

4．Early language development：A quantitative description226

5．Early language development：A qualitative description228

6．Later language development229

6.1 Development during the school years231

6.2 The nature of later linguistic acquisition234

6.2.1 Developing reflective linguistic abilities234

6.2.2 Continuing linguistic development236

Metalinguistic awareness250

Elizabeth Mertz＆Johathan Yovel250

1．Introduction250

2．Conceptualizing metalanguage251

2.1 Metalanguage and object language251

2.2 Constitutive and creative functions of metalanguage252

3．Metalanguage,metalinguistic activity,and metalinguistic awareness254

3.1 The problem of metalinguistic awareness254

3.2 Language structure and metapragmatic awareness255

3.3 Metapragmatic performance,social power,and cultural context257

4．Linguistic/empirical studies of metalinguistic structure,activity,and awareness259

5．Linguistic ideology261

6．Awareness and intentionality：Cognitive and developmental approaches to metalinguistic activity262

6.1 Metalinguistic activity in learning to write264

6.2 Metalinguistic awareness in young children and schoolchildren265

7．Conclusion：Metalinguistic creativity,awareness,and the social structuring of communication266

Perception and language272

Roger Lindsay272

1．Overview and introduction272

2．Relativity and determinism273

2.1 Perception,language and higher-order cognitive processes275

3．Structural constraints upon cognition278

3.1 The language-perception interface280

3.2 The perception-action interface282

3.3 The language-action interface282

3.4 The perception-consciousness interface283

3.5 The language-consciousness interface283

3.6 The consciousness-action interface284

4．Conclusions284

Psycholinguistics288

Dominiek Sandra289

1．The birth,adolescence,and adulthood of psycholinguistics289

2．Major goals292

3．Major theoretical models295

3.1 The nature of mental processes and representations296

3.1.1 The early models296

3.1.2 Interactive-activation models297

3.1.3 Connectionist models299

3.1.4 Exemplar models301

3.2 Rules or no rules：That's the question302

4．Major methodologies303

4.1 Corpus research303

4.2 Experimentation304

4.2.1 Chronometric studies305

4.2.2 Brain imaging307

4.3 Simulation308

5．Major research techniques309

5.1 Using single words to discover important representational factors309

5.2 Priming311

5.3 Inducing interference315

6．Studies on language perception317

6.1 The process of visual word recognition317

6.1.1 Processes at the prelexical processing level317

6.1.1.1 Prelexical morphological decomposition317

6.1.1.2 Prelexical phonological recoding319

6.1.2 Factors determining the accessibility of a lexical representation320

6.1.2.1 Factors affecting the strength of a lexical representation320

6.1.2.2 Factors affecting the selection of a lexical representation323

6.2 The spelling process328

6.2.1 Spelling development328

6.2.1.1 Stage models328

6.2.1.2 Implicit learning of spelling principles329

6.2.2 Experienced spellers：What their spelling errors tell us331

6.2.2.1 The effect of relative homophone frequency331

6.2.2.2 The effect of words in the proximity332

7．Spoken language processing333

7.1 Speech perception333

7.1.1 Finding the speech sounds334

7.1.1.1 Categorical perception334

7.1.1.2 Perceptual learning of category boundaries335

7.1.1.3 Feedback from lexical representations to phoneme representations?338

7.1.2 Finding the words in a sentence340

7.1.2.1 The importance of the rhythmical heuristic341

7.1.2.2 The contribution of lexical competition344

7.1.2.3 The possible word constraint345

7.1.2.4 Reliance on statistical regularities346

7.1.2.5 Reliance on subtle acoustic cues348

7.2 Speech production348

7.2.1 Speech error research349

7.2.2 Experiments on speech production352

7.2.2.1 The picture-word interference paradigm353

7.2.2.2 Implicit priming355

7.2.2.3 Producing multiple words357

7.2.2.4 Models of speech production358

8．Conclusion359

The multilingual lexicon369

Ton Dijkstra369

1．The multilingual processing system369

2．Multilingualism and word recognition370

3．Multilingualism and special words：Cognates373

4．Multilingualism and special words：False friends375

5．Multilingualism and sentence processing378

6．The BIA+model and sentence processing379

7．Empirical studies on bilingual sentence processing380

8．The multilingual lexicon：Present and future research383

Index389