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PART 1 THE CRIMINOLOGICAL IMAGINATION2

Timeline2

1 Introduction3

An introduction: the many meanings of criminology3

What counts as a criminological topic?4

Criminological methods4

Sociology and the 'sociological imagination'5

Sociology and the 'criminological imagination'5

Sociology, social divisions and crime6

Structure of the book8

How to use the book8

Special features9

Chapter summaries9

Critical thinking questions9

Suggestions for further study9

Suggestions about more information9

Glossary9

2 Histories of Crime11

Introduction11

Historical patterns: declining violence12

British prosecution patterns13

Trends in historical writing17

Men and crime17

Women and crime19

Youth and crime22

The 'dangerous class', 'underclass', race and crime25

Summary27

Critical thinking questions27

Further study27

More information28

3 Researching Crime29

Introduction29

Criminological research methods30

Criminological data32

Thinking critically about statistics32

Recorded crime33

Racist incidents: an example of thinking critically about recorded crime35

National crime victimization surveys37

International, local and commercial crime victimization surveys38

Thinking positively about crime statistics39

Criminologists and criminals39

Moral, ethical and legal issues41

Codes of ethics42

Taking sides in criminological research42

Becker and 'underdog sociology'42

Ohlin and policy-forming sociology43

Summary45

Critical thinking questions46

Further study46

More information46

PART2 THINKING ABOUT CRIME49

4 The Enlightenment and Early Traditions51

Introduction51

A caution52

Enlightenment thinking about crime53

The classical tradition in criminology54

Back to justice: some recent classical developments58

Problems with the classical model58

The positivist movement58

The criminal type and Lombroso58

Statistical regularity and positivism60

The positivist inheritance60

Problems with the positivist model65

Tensions between positivism and classical thinking65

Summary66

Critical thinking questions66

Further study66

More information67

5 Early Sociologies of Crime68

Introduction68

The normality of crime69

Problems with functionalism70

The egoism of crime in capitalist society70

Problems with Marxism73

Cultural transmission, city life and the Chicago School73

The Chicago School and crime74

Crime as learned: differential association theory78

Problems with the Chicago School78

Anomie and the stresses and strains of crime79

Problems with anomie theory80

Gangs, youth and deviant subcultures80

Synthesizing the theories?81

Control theories82

Neutralization theory82

Social control theory83

Problems with control theory84

Reintegrative shaming?84

Written out of criminological history?85

Early black sociologists85

Early sociological studies of women and girls86

Summary87

Critical thinking questions88

Further study89

More information89

6 Radicalizing Traditions90

Introduction90

'Deviance' and labelling93

Becker, Lemert and Cohen94

Wider contributions96

Problems with labelling theory97

Developments98

Crime as conflict99

Jeffrey Reiman and economic conflicts99

The new criminology100

Left realism102

Left idealism?103

The Birmingham Centre and the new subcultural theory103

Some problems106

Feminist criminology108

Critique of malestream criminology109

Men, masculinity and crime111

Foucault and discourse theory112

Summary114

Critical thinking questions114

Further study114

More information115

7 Crime, Social Theory and Social Change116

Introduction116

Crime and the movement to late modernity117

The exclusive society and the vertigo of late modernity119

Postmodernism and crime121

Cultural criminology123

Comparative criminology, globalization and crime124

Globalization125

Rebirth of human rights theories128

The risk society: actuarial justice and contradictory criminologies129

The genealogy of risk130

Summary133

Critical thinking questions134

Further study134

More information135

8 Crime, Place and Space137

Introduction137

Offenders, offences and place138

Spatial distribution of crime139

Crime prevention, space and communities145

Changing spaces: urban design and crime145

Living in spaces: everyday negotiations of disorder149

Mapping and the uses of geo-data150

Critical cartography151

Summary152

Critical thinking questions153

Further study153

More information153

PART 3 DOING CRIME155

9 Victims and Victimization157

Introduction157

The role of victims within the criminal justice system158

Defining crime and victimization158

The hierarchy of victimization159

Different types of victimology162

Crime victimization surveys163

Social variables in crime victimization165

Social class165

Age165

Gender166

Ethnicity167

The impact of crime169

Towards a victim-oriented criminal justice process?172

Summary174

Critical thinking questions175

Further study175

More information175

10 Crime and Property177

Introduction177

Patterns of property crime178

Comparative experiences179

The hidden figure of property crime182

Profile of property crime offenders183

Everybody does it?184

Social distribution of crime risks185

Social class185

Ethnicity186

Age186

Geography187

Controlling property crime187

Other forms of property crime190

Theft and illegal export of cultural property190

Theft of intellectual property191

Biopiracy192

New horizons in understanding property crime192

Summary194

Critical thinking questions194

Further study195

More information195

11 Crime, Sexuality and Gender196

Introduction196

Understanding sex offences: sex crimes, gender and violence200

Feminist perspectives200

Rape as social control201

Date rape204

Rape, war crime and genocide204

Pornography205

The instrumental and symbolic role of law in sex crimes207

Panics around sex crimes208

The changing character of sex crimes209

Sex crimes on the Internet210

Changes in the law concerning sexual offences in the United Kingdom211

Sex offences in global perspective213

Summary215

Critical thinking questions215

Further study215

More information216

12 Crime, the Emotions and Social Psychology217

Introduction217

Rediscovering the emotions218

Status, stigma and seduction219

Conceptualizing emotions220

Fear of crime221

Urbanism, anxiety and the human condition223

Hate crime225

The thrill of it all?228

Self-esteem, shame and respect229

Stories from the street231

Humiliation, rage and edgework232

Risk, excitement and routine233

Summary234

Critical thinking questions234

Further study235

More information235

13 Organizational and Professional Forms of Crime236

Introduction236

Thinking about organizational and professional crime237

Crime in the world of illegal enterprise239

Professional organized crime in Britain, 1930s-2000240

Ethnicity, outsiders and the organization of crime242

Organized crime as local and global244

Crime in the world of lawful professions246

Defining and identifying 'crimes' of the powerful247

Definitions and breadth247

Crime and the professions248

Crime in the world of corporate-level business and commerce252

Crimes of the powerful252

Transnational corporate crimes255

Summary256

Critical thinking questions256

Further study257

More information257

14 Drugs, Alcohol, Health and Crime259

Introduction259

Controlling illicit drugs and alcohol261

Drug politics and policy in the United Kingdom263

The anomaly of alcohol control266

Drugs as a global issue266

The opium trade in the nineteenth century266

The drugs trade in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries267

Are drugs' a problem' ?269

Drugs and crime274

Criminal groups and the drug market276

Controlling drugs277

Alcohol and crime280

Drugs, alcohol, crime and community: a public health issue283

Connecting crime and health issues283

Crime, public health and social inequalities284

Public health as social policing285

Medicine as a form of social control285

Medical and psychiatric interventions as social control285

Medicalization of control in prisons286

Medicine and the criminal justice system287

Summary288

Critical thinking questions289

Further study289

More information289

PART4 CONTROLLING CRIME291

15 Thinking about Punishment293

Introduction293

Philosophical justifications295

Reductivist principles295

Retributivist principles301

Sociological explanations305

Durkheim and social solidarity306

Marx and political economy308

Foucault and disciplinary power310

Feminist challenges313

Summary314

Critical thinking questions314

Further study315

More information315

16 The Criminal Justice Process317

Introduction317

Historical context317

Overview of criminal justice institutions318

Key stages of the criminal justice process320

The police321

The Crown Prosecution Service323

The judiciary324

The Probation Service325

The nature of criminal justice327

Procedural justice327

Substantive justice330

Negotiated justice331

Criminal justice in crisis?334

Summary335

Critical thinking questions336

Further study336

More information336

17 Police and Policing338

Introduction338

Historical origins and continuities339

Police roles and functions342

Police culture345

Police accountability348

Legal accountability348

Political accountability349

Managerial accountability349

Police deviance and criminality351

Privatization, pluralization and transnationalization in policing353

Summary355

Critical thinking questions355

Further study355

More information356

18 Prisons and Imprisonment357

Introduction357

Comparing penal systems358

Origins of imprisonment359

Why prison?362

The modern prison estate364

Contemporary crises365

The expanding prison population365

Overcrowding and conditions366

Authority and managerialism367

Social consequences367

Youth custody367

Gendered prisons372

Ethnicity, nationality and racism374

Prison sociology378

Prisoner subcultures and 'mind games'378

Prison riots and the problem of order379

Summary380

Critical thinking questions381

Further study381

More information381

PART 5 GLOBALIZING CRIME383

19 Green Criminology385

Introduction385

Globalization and the risk society386

Green criminology387

Harms, connections and consequences388

Harms to the planet and its inhabitants: a typology389

Secondary or symbiotic green crimes394

State violence against oppositianal groups394

Hazardous waste and organized crime395

The criminalization of environmental offences396

The making of green crimes: criminalizing environmental issues397

Early legislatian397

Growth of environmental legislation398

Green crimes, social costs and social exclusion398

Developing nations as 'dump sites'398

Local communities as dump sites399

Fighting back: green movements of resistance and change400

A green backlash?401

Ways ahead in a risk society402

The green criminology agenda403

Summary403

Critical thinking questions404

Further study404

More information405

20 Crime and the Media406

Introduction406

Blurring boundaries407

Media effects, popular anxieties and violent representations408

Meanings of violence409

Dramatizing crime, manufacturing consent and news production412

Current debates414

Imagining transgression, representing detection and consuming crime416

Addressing audiences421

Crime in cyberspace422

Types of cybercrime423

Child pornography425

Summary428

Critical thinking questions428

Further study429

More information429

21 Terrorism, State Crime and Human Rights430

Introduction430

The emergence and institutionalization of the human rights paradigm432

Human trafficking433

Criminology, human rights and crimes of the state434

Terrorism - a useful concept?435

State responses to terror437

Torture437

Crimes of war438

Capital punishment440

Conclusion442

Summary443

Critical thinking questions443

Further study444

More information444

22 Criminological Futures445

Introduction445

Visions of the future?446

Persistence of the past447

Extension of current trends447

The present into the future449

Criminological thinking - present and future?449

Criminological futures?450

Risk and risky populations as the future focus of control?451

A different future: towards a public criminology452

An agenda for a public criminology452

An outline of a public criminology453

Summary455

Critical thinking questions455

Further study456

Glossary457

Bibliography464

Webliography508

Index520