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Part 1 Preliminaries1

1 Semantics in Linguistics3

1．1 Introduction3

1．2 Semantics and Semiotics5

1．3 Three Challenges in Doing Semantics6

1．4 Meeting the Challenges7

1．5 Semantics in a Model of Grammar9

1．5．1 Introduction9

1．5．2 Word meaning and sentence meaning10

1．6 Some Important Assumptions11

1．6．1 Reference and sense12

Preface by Halliday12

1．6．2 Uuerances，sentences and propositions13

王宗炎序13

1．6．3 Literal and non-literal meaning15

导读16

1．6．4 Semantics and pragmatics17

1．7 Summary19

Further Reading19

Exercises20

Notes21

2 Meaning，Thought and Reality23

2．1 Introduction23

2．2 Reference25

2．2．1 Types of reference25

2．2．2 Names27

2．2．3 Nouns and noun phrases28

2．3 Reference as a Theory of Meaning30

2．4 Mental Representations32

2．4．1 Introduction32

2．4．2 Concepts34

2．4．3 Necessary and sufficient conditions35

2．4．4Prototypes37

2．4．5Relations between concepts38

2．4．6Acquiring concepts40

2．5 Words，Concepts and Thinking40

2．5．1 Linguistic relativity41

2．5．2 The language of thought hypothesis43

2．5．3 Thought and reality44

List of Figures and Tables45

2．6 Summary46

Further Reading47

Exercises47

Preface47

Notes49

List of Abbreviations and Symbols49

Part II Semantic Description51

3 Word Meaning53

3．1 Introduction53

3．2 Words and Grammatical Categories55

3．3 Words and Lexical Items55

3．4 Problems and Pinning Down Word Meaning59

3．5 Lexical Relations63

3．5．1 Homonymy63

3．5．2 Polysemy64

3．5．3 Synonymy65

3．5．4 Opposites（Antonymy）66

3．5．5 Hyponymy68

3．5．7 Member-collection70

3．5．6 Meronymy70

3．5．8 Portion-mass71

3．6 Derivational Relations71

3．6．1 Causative verbs71

3．6．2 Agentive nouns72

3．7 Summary73

Further Reading73

Exercises74

Notes76

4 Sentence Relations and Truth79

4．1 Introduction79

4．2 Logic and Truth81

4．3 Necessary Truth，A Priori Truth and Analyticity86

4．4 Entailment90

4．5．1 Introduction93

4．5 Presupposition93

4．5．2 Two approaches to presupposition94

4．5．3 Presupposition failure96

4．5．4 Presupposition triggers97

4．5．5 Presuppositions and context99

4．5．6 Pragmatic theories of presupposition101

Further Reading102

Exercises102

4．6 Summary103

Notes104

5 Sentence Semantics 1：Situations106

5．1 Introduction106

5．2 Classifying Situations107

5．2．1 Introduction107

5．2．2 Verbs and situation types109

5．2．3 A system of situation types113

5．2．4 Tense and aspect114

5．2．5 Comparing aspect across languages120

5．2．6Combining situation type and aspect123

5．3 Modality and Evidentiality125

5．3．1 Modality125

5．3．2 Mood128

5．3．3Evidentiality131

5．4 Summary133

Further Reading133

Exercises134

Notes137

6 Sentence Semantics 2：Participants139

6．1 Introduction：Classifying Participants139

6．2 Thematic Roles140

6．3 Grammatical Relations and Thematic Roles145

6．4 Verbs and Thematic Role Grids147

6．5 Problems with Thematic Roles149

6．6 The Motivation for Identifying Thematic Roles152

6．7 Voice155

6．7．1 Passive voice155

6．7．2 Comparing passive constructions across languages159

6．7．3 Middle voice161

6．8 Summary165

Further Reading165

Exercises166

Notes169

7 Context and Inference172

7．1 Introduction172

7．2．1 Spatial deixis173

7．2 Deixis173

7．2．3 Extensions of spatial deixis177

7．2．2 Grammaticalization of context177

7．2．4 Person deixis178

7．2．5 Social deixis179

7．3 Reference and Context180

7．4 Knowledge as Context181

7．4．1 Discourse as context182

7．4．2 Background knowledge as context183

7．4．3 Mutual knowledge185

7．4．4 Giving background knowledge to computers186

7．5 Information Structure187

7．6 Inference191

7．7 Conversational Implicature192

7．8 Summary196

Exercises197

Further Reading197

Notes202

8 Functions of Language：Speech as Action203

8．1 Introduction203

8．2 Austin s Speech Act Theory206

8．2．1 Introduction206

8．2．2 Evaluating performative utterances208

8．2．3 Explicit and implicit performatives209

8．2．4 Statements as performatives210

8．2．5 Three facets of a speech act211

8．3 Categorizing Speech Acts212

8．4 Indirect Speech Acts214

8．4．1 Introduction214

8．4．2 Understanding indirect speech acts216

8．4．3 Indirect acts and politeness218

8．5 Sentence Types221

8．6 Summary223

Further Reading224

Exercises224

Notes225

Part III Theoretical Approaches229

9 Meaning Components231

9．1 Introduction231

9．2 Lexical Relations in CA232

9．2．1 Binary features233

9．2．2 Redundancy rules233

9．3 Katz s Semantic Theory234

9．3．1 Introduction234

9．3．3 Projection rules235

9．3．2 The Katzian dictionary235

9．4 Grammatical Rules and Semantic Components238

9．4．1 The Methodology238

9．4．2 Thematic roles and linking rules241

9．5 Components and Conflation Patterns245

9．6 Jackendoff s Conceptual Structure249

9．6．1 Introduction249

9．6．2The semantic components250

9．6．3 Localist semantic fields251

9．6．4 Complex events and states253

9．6．5 THINGS：Semantic classes of nominals254

9．6．6 Cross-category generalizations255

9．6．7 Processes of semantic combination256

9．7 Problems with Components of Meaning259

Further Reading261

9．8 Summary261

Exercises262

Notes266

10 Formal Semantics268

10．1 Introduction268

10．2Model-Theoretical Semantics271

10．3 Translating English into a Logical Metalanguage271

10．3．1 Introduction271

10．3．2 Simple statements in predicate logic272

10．3．3 Quantifiers in predicate logic274

10．3．4 Some advantages of predicate logic translation277

10．4 The Semantics of the Logical Metalanguage279

10．4．1 Introduction279

10．4．2 The semantic interpretation of predicate logic symbols279

10．4．3 The domain280

10．4．4 The denotation assignment function281

10．5 Checking the Truth Value of Sentences282

10．5．1 Evaluating a simple statement282

10．5．2 Evaluating a compound sentence with ∧‘and’283

10．5．3 Evaluating sentences with the quantifiers ( and (284

10．6 Intensionality286

10．6．1 Introduction286

10．6．2 Modality287

10．6．3 Tense and aspect289

10．7 Word Meaning：Meaning Postulates291

10．8 Summary293

Further Reading294

Exercises294

Notes297

11．1 Introduction299

11 Cognitive Semantics299

11．2 Metaphor302

11．2．1 Introduction302

11．2．2 Metaphor in cognitive semantics304

11．2．3Features of metaphor305

11．2．4 The influence of metaphor307

11．3 Image Schemas308

11．3．1 Containment schema308

11．3．2 Path schema310

11．3．3 Force schemas311

11．4 Polysemy312

11．4．1 Prepositions312

11．4．2 Modal verbs317

11．5 Mental Spaces319

11．5．1 Connections between spaces320

11．5．2 Referential opacity322

11．5．3 Presupposition326

11．5．4 Section Summary327

11．6 Construing a Scene328

11．6．1 Perspective328

11．6．2 Profiling329

11．6．3 Scanning331

11．7 Summary331

Further Reading332

Exercises332

Notes335

Peferences337

Index354

文库索引361