生态学 原理与应用 英文本PDF|Epub|txt|kindle电子书版本网盘下载

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Preface1

Contents1

Chapter 1 Introduction2

1.1 What is ecology?2

1.2 The nature of ecology3

1.3 The study of ecology3

Chapter 2 The individual5

2.1 Why look at individuals in ecology?5

2.2 Autotrophs and heterotrophs5

2.2.1 Terms associated with heterotrophic nutrition5

2.2.2 Ingestion by heterotrophs6

2.3 Metabolic rate7

2.4.1 Size9

2.4.2 Life style9

2.5 Size determines more than metabolic rate10

2.6.1 Assimilation efficiency11

2.6 2 Production and respiration11

2.6 Energy budgets11

2.6.3 Allocation to reproduction12

2.6.4 Drawing up a complete energy budget12

2.7 Distinguishing between growth and reproduction13

Chapter 3 Autecology16

3.1 The meaning of autecology16

3.2 The autecology of bracken16

3.2.1 The importance of bracken16

3.2.2 The life form of bracken17

3.2 3 Anti-predator mechanisms18

2.4 Factors affecting metabolic rate19

3.3 The autecology of the European starling19

3.3.1 Appearance and distribution19

3.3.2 Feeding habits20

3.3.3 Roosting behaviour of starlings21

3.3.4 Reproduction22

3.3.5 Starlings and humans22

Chapter 4 Population dynamics23

4.1 Populations and population change23

4.2 Dispersal of organisms24

4.3 Dormancy24

4.4 The study of populations25

4.4.1 The basic equation25

4.4.2 Age structure in populations25

4.5.1 Life tables29

4.5 Presentation of demographic data29

4.4.5 Long-term population studies29

4.4.3 The fate of a cohort29

4.4.4 Age at death29

4.5.2 Population pyramids30

4.5.3 Survivorship curves30

4.6 Evolutionary strategies32

4.6.1 Strategies as shown by survivorship curves32

4.6.2 r-and K-strategies32

4.7 Modular organisms34

5.1 Population growth37

5.1.1 Population growth without regulation-exponential growth37

Chapter 5 Population regulation37

5.1.2 Simple population regulation-the logistic growth curve38

5.2 Factors which regulate population size39

5.2.1 Types of regulation39

5.2.2 Space41

5.2.3 Food and water42

5.2.4 Territories43

5.2.5 Herbivores and predators44

5.2.6 Weather and climate45

5.2.7 Parasites and diseases45

5.2.8 Natural disasters46

5.2.9 Self-regulation and stress47

5.3 Patterns in population dynamics48

Chapter 6 Ecological genetics51

6.1 The importance of genetics to ecology51

6.1.1 The source of variation51

6.1.2 Genetic and environmental variation51

6.1.3 The role of variation in natural selection51

6.2 Reproductive systems52

6.2.1 Formation of genetic variation52

6.2.3 Facultative cross-fertilisation53

6.2.4 Self-fertilisation53

6.2.2 Obligate cross-fertilisation53

6.2 5 Seed apomixis54

6.2.6 Vegetative reproduction55

6.3 Genetic consequences of different reproductive systems55

6.3.1 The source of inherited chromosomes55

6.3.2 The consequences of outcrossing55

6.3.3 The consequences of self-fertilisation56

6.3.4 The consequences of asexual reproduction57

6.4 Patterns of genetic variation58

6.4.1 External influences on genetic variation58

6.4.2 Founder effects and bottlenecks58

6.4.4 Ecotypes and ecoclines59

6.4.3 Isolation of populations59

6.5 Genetic variation within an organism63

Chapter 7 Behavioural ecology64

7.1 What is behavioural ecology?64

7.2 Optimisation theory64

7.3 Optimal foraging64

7.3.1 Optimal foraging in crows64

7.3.2 Foraging in African elephants65

7.3.3 Optimal foraging in plants66

7.4 Growth versus reproduction68

7.5 Reproducing only once versus reproducing several times68

7.6.2 Which sex looks after the offspring?69

7.6 Parental care69

7.6.1 Offspring size69

7.7 Breeding systems in plants70

7.8 Alternative strategies71

7.9 Games theory72

7.10 Constraints on adaptation74

7.10.1 Time lags75

7.10.2 Historical constraints75

7.10.3 Lack of genetic variation76

8.2.1 Less risk of predation77

8.2 The advantages of group living77

8.1 Living in groups77

Chapter 8 Sociobiology77

8.2.2 More chance of obtaining food78

8.2.3 Other advantages of group living78

8.3 Disadvantages of group living79

8.4 Optimal group size80

8.5 Evolution of helping behaviour80

8.5.1 Kin selection80

8.5.2 Reciprocal altruism81

8.6.1 Termites83

8.6 The unit of selection and social behaviour83

8.5.3 Group selection83

8.6.2 Army ants84

8.6.3 Lions86

8.6.4 Naked mole rats88

8.7 Human sociobiology89

8.7.1 Parental investment in the iater mediaeval Portuguese nobility90

8.7.2 Helping behaviour in humans91

Chapter 9 The environment92

9.1 What is the environment?92

9.2.2 Geology and soil93

9.2.1 The composition ofthe physical environment93

9.2 The physical environment93

9.2.3 Topography96

9.2.4 Latitudinal light and temperature variation97

9.2.5 Climate and weather97

9.2.6 Catastrophes101

9.3 The biotic environment101

9.3.1 Types of interaction101

9.3.2 Intraspecific relationships(within species)101

9.3.3 Interspecific relationships(between species)102

9.4.2 Pathogens and climate103

9.4.1 The complexity of the environment103

9.4 Biotic and abiotic interactions103

9.4.3 Abiotic effects on competition104

Chapter 10 Habitats and niches106

10.1 Habitats106

10.2 Niches106

10.2.1 Determining niches106

10.2.2 Each species has its own unique niche108

10.3 Gause's competitive exclusion principle110

10.4 Species coexistence112

1O.4.1 Size ratios in closely related species112

10.5 Fundamental and realised niches113

10.4.2 Niche overlap and species coexistence113

10.6 Resource partitioning114

10.7 Character displacement116

10.8 Interspecific competition in natural communities116

10.9 Do plants need niches?118

10.10 Community structure of fish on coral reefs119

Chapter 11 Trophic levels120

11.1 Why study trophiclevels?120

11.2 Autotrophs120

11.2.1 Photoautotrophs120

11.2.2 Chemoautotrophs121

11.3 Decomposers122

11.3.1 Decomposition on the forest floor123

11.3.2 Decomposition of dead plant matter124

11.4 Herbivores and carnivores125

11.5 Omnivores126

11.6 Food chains126

11.7 Food webs128

11.8 Pyramids of numbers129

11.9 Pyramids of biomass130

12.2 Primary production in terrestrial communities132

12.1 Energy and disorder132

Chapter 12 Energy transfer132

12.3 Primary production in aquatic communities136

12.4 The capture of light by plants136

12.5 Efficiencies in ecology137

12.6 Energy flow in natural communities137

12.6.1 Odum's (1957)study at Silver Springs Florida138

12.6.2 Teal's(1962)study at a salt marsh in Georgia138

12.6.3 Varley's (1970)study ofWytham Wood,Oxford140

12.7 The efficiency of energy transfer in ecosystems142

12.8 Pyramids of energy144

13.1 The pattern of nutrient transfer and its connection with pollution147

Chapter 13 Nutrient cycling and pollution147

13.2 The carbon cycle148

13.3 The greenhouse effect149

13.4 The nitrogen cycle152

13.5 The phosphorus cycle155

13.6 Interactions between the nutrient cycles155

13.7 The importance of nutrient availability156

13.7.1 The response of organisms to nutrient availability156

13.7.2 China clay waste tips157

13.8.1 Different forms of pollution158

13.8 Pollution158

13.7.3 Nutrient cycling in tropical forests158

13.8.2 Eutrophication159

13.8.3 Heavy metal toxicity160

13.8.4 Alkaline wastes161

13.8.5 Acid rain161

13.8.6 Pesticides163

13.8.7 CFCs and the ozone layer165

13.8.8 Radioactivity166

14.1.2 Recognition of communities168

14.2.1 The investigation of communities168

14.2 The structure of communities168

14.1.1 Definitions168

14.1 The community concept168

Chapter 14 Communities168

14.2.2 Oak woodland communities169

14.2.3 Marine rock pools172

14.2.4 Mammalian gut communities174

14.3 Global distribution of terrestrial communities178

14.4 Patterns of diversity181

14.4.1 Global diversity181

14.4.2 Species richness in-a community181

14.4.3 Stability-diversity relationships183

14.4.4 The global cline184

Chapter 15 Ecosystems187

15.1 The first use of ecosystem187

15.2 Soils187

15.2.1 The structure of soils187

15.2.2 The great soil groups190

15.2.3 The effect of vegetation on soil-two case studies194

15.3 Wetland and aquatic ecosystems196

15.3.1 Water-the important factor196

15.3.3 Marine wetland ecosystems197

15.3.2 Types of wetlands197

15.3.4 Floodland ecosystems198

15.3.5 Swamp and marsh ecosystems199

15.3.6 Bog ecosystems200

15.3.7 Aquatic ecosystems201

15.4 Inter-relationships of ecosystems204

Chapter 16 Succession206

16.1 Vegetation changes206

16.2 The causes of change207

16.3 Examples of primary seres208

16.3.1 Xeroseres208

16.3.2 Hydroseres210

16.4.1 Variation in seres211

16.4 Patterns of succession211

16.4.2 The end of the succession212

16.4.3 Diverted seres213

16.5 Human influence on succession215

Chapter 17 Biomes217

17.1 How many biomes are there?217

17.2 The world's terrestrial biomes217

17.2.1 Tropical rainforest217

17.2.5 Thornwood219

17.2.6 Temperate rainforest219

17.2.3 Tropical seasonal forest219

17.2.4 Tropical broad-leaved woodland219

17.2.2 Elfinwood219

17.2.7 Temperate deciduous forest220

17.2.8 Temperate evergreen forest220

17.2.9 Temperate woodland221

17.2.10 Temperate shrubland221

17.2.11 Boreal forest221

17.2.12 Savannah222

17.2.13 Temperate grassland223

17.2.16 Tundra224

17.2.15 Alpine grassland224

17.2.14 Alpine shrubland224

17.2.17 Warm semi-desert scrub225

17.2.18 Cool semi-desert225

17.2.19 Arctic-alpine semi-desert225

17.2.20 Desert225

17.3.2 Tropical freshwater swamp forest227

17.3.4 Lakes and ponds227

17.3.3 Temperate freshwater swamp forest227

17.3.1 Cool temperate bog227

17.3 Wetland and freshwater biomes227

17.2.21 Arctic-alpine desert227

17.3.5 Streams and rivers228

17.4 Coastal and marine biomes228

17.4.1 Marine rocky shore228

174.2 Marine sandy beach229

17.4.3 Marine mud fiat230

17.4.4 Temperate salt marsh230

17.4.5 Mangrove swamp230

17.4.6 Coral reef230

17.4.7 Marine surface pelagic231

17.4.9 Continental shelf benthos232

17.4.8 Marine deep pelagic232

17.4.10 Deep ocean benthos233

Chapter 18 Biogeography235

18.1 Species distribution-where and why?235

18.2 The historic effects of plate tectonics236

18.2.1 Past continental movements236

18.2.2 Present patterns of biogeography239

18.3 Island biogeography241

18.3.1 The fascination of islands241

18.3.2 Colonisation of isolated islands241

18.3.3 The equilibrium theory244

18 3.4 Evolution on islands245

18.3.5 Mountain islands249

Chapter 19 Co-evolution252

19.1 The different grades of co-evolution252

19.2 Pairwise co-evolution253

19.2.1 Generai aspects of one-on-one relationships253

19.2.2 The ant-acacia example255

19.3 Diffuse co-evolution256

19.3.1 Co-evolution between groups of species256

19.3.2 The mammalian predator-prey example257

19.4.1 Angiosperm-pollinator relationships258

19.4 Insect pollination258

19.3.3 The Red Queen hypothesis258

19.4.2 The early evolution of insect pollination261

19.4.3 Orchids and Hymenoptera262

19.5 Introduced species263

Chapter 20 Conservation principles268

20.1 Biology is not enough268

20.2 The need for conservation268

20.2.1 The pressure on wildlife268

20.3 The philosophical basis for conservation269

20.3.1 Ethical arguments269

20.2.2 Maintaining biodiversity269

20.3.2 Anthropocentric arguments272

20.3.3 The role of ecology272

20.4 Conservation of species273

20.4.1 Why do species become extinct?273

20.4.2 Genetic diversity in rare species275

20.4.3 Captive breeding programmes277

20.4.4 Re-introductions277

20.5 Conservation of ecosystems279

20.5.1 The importance of habitat conservation279

20.5.2 Design of nature reserves280

20.5.3 Maintenance of conservation areas281

20.6 Conservation of the biosphere283

Chapter 21 Conservation in practice284

21.1 The realities of attempting conservation284

21.2 Conservation of species284

21.2.1 The golden lion tamarin-a successfulre-introduction284

21.2.2 The African elephant-protective legislation285

21.2.3 The tiger-teetering on the edge of extinction286

21.2.4 Northern spotted owl-habitat destruction287

21.2.5 Spreading avens-habitat management288

21.2.6 Partula snails-captive breeding289

21.3.1 Dif.ferent models of conservation290

21.3 Conservation of ecosystems290

21.3.2 UK legislation291

21.3.3 Tropical rainforest292

21.3.4 Wetlands293

21.4 Conservation of the biosphere296

21.4.1 The greenhouse effect296

21.4.2 Conserving the seas298

21.5 What can individuals do?300

Glossary303

Bibliography311

Index327