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1 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE ENVIRONMENT1

1 Introduction1

2 Lawmaking Processes and Sources of Law12

3 Overview37

2 INTERNATIONAL GOVERNANCE AND THE FORMULATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POLICY43

1 Introduction43

2 The Development of International Environmental Policy48

3 The UN and Environmental Governance58

4 Other International Organizations71

5 International Regulatory Regimes84

6 Scientific Organizations99

7 Non- Governmental Organizations100

8 Conclusions103

3 RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF STATES CONCERNING PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT106

1 Introduction106

2 Sustainable Development： Legal Implications115

3 Principles of Global Environmental Responsibility128

4 Prevention of Pollution and Environmental Harm137

5 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources190

6 Military Activities and the Environment205

7 Conclusions208

4 INTERSTATE ENFORCEMENT： STATE RESPONSIBILITY， TREATY COMPLIANCE， AND DISPUTE SETTLEMENT211

1 Introduction211

2 State Responsibility for Environmental Damage214

3 Treaty Compliance237

4 Settlement of International Environmental Disputes250

5 Conclusions266

5 NON-STATE ACTORS： ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS， LIABILITY， AND CRIMES268

1 Introduction268

2 Human Rights and the Environment271

3 Transboundary Environmental Rights303

4 Harmonization of Environmental Liability316

5 Corporate Environmental Accountability326

6 Environmental Crimes329

7 Conclusions334

6 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION335

1 Introduction335

2 Transboundary Air Pollution342

3 Protecting the Ozone Layer349

4 The Climate Change Regime356

5 Conclusions377

7 THE LAW OF THE SEA AND PROTECTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT379

1 Introduction379

2 Customary Law and the 1982 UNCLOS386

3 Regional Protection of the Marine Environment390

4 Marine Pollution from Ships398

5 Pollution Incidents and Emergencies at Sea423

6 Responsibility and Liability for Marine Pollution Damage430

7 Conclusions441

8 INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES443

1 Introduction443

2 International Regulation of Toxic Chemicals445

3 Protection of the Marine Environment from Toxic Substances451

4 International Trade in Hazardous Substances473

5 Conclusions486

9 NUCLEAR ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT488

1 Introduction488

2 The International Regulation of Nuclear Energy492

3 Control of Transboundary Nuclear Risks508

4 State Responsibility for Nuclear Damage516

5 Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage520

6 Conclusions533

10 INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES： ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE USE535

1 Introduction535

2 Protection of Watercourse Environments547

3 Regional Cooperation and Environmental Regulation572

4 Conclusions580

11 CONSERVATION OF NATURE， ECOSYSTEMS， AND BIODIVERSITY583

1 Introduction583

2 Concepts of Nature Conservation and Natural Resources585

3 The Role of Law in the Protection of Nature593

4 Codification and Development of International Law on Nature Protection602

5 The Convention on Biological Diversity612

6 Conclusions648

12 CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY AND LAND-BASED SPECIES AND BIODIVERSITY650

1 Introduction650

2 Implementation of Principles and Strategies through Conservation Treaties651

3 Signficance and Effectiveness of the Major Global Wildlife Conventions671

4 Post-UNCED Instruments for Conservation of Nature and Biodiversity692

5 The Regional Approach696

6 Coordination of Conventions and Organs697

7 Conclusions698

13 CONSERVATION OF MARINE LIVING RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY702

1 Introduction702

2 Jurisdiction over Fisheries and Marine Mammals706

3 The Development of International Fisheries Regimes711

4 The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea714

5 Post-UNCLOS Developments730

6 Conservation of Marine Biodiversity744

7 Conclusions751

14 INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION753

1 Introduction753

2 The Multilateral Trading System756

3 Multilateral Environmental Agreements and Trade Restrictions766

4 Trade Restrictions to Protect Resources beyond National Jurisdiction769

5 Trade Restrictions to Protect the Domestic Environment778

6 Pollution Havens： Trade Restrictions to Improve the Environment of Other Countries788

7 The Export of Hazardous Substances and Wastes793

8 Environmental Taxes796

9 The TRIPS Agreement and the Biodiversity Convention801

10 Conclusions809

Bibliography811

Index833